Born and died in 1786

King of Bavaria who encouraged industrialization, initiated the Ludwig Canal, and oversaw the first German railway, later abdicating during the 1848 revolutions

French polymath who excelled as a mathematician, physicist, astronomer, and politician, known for his work in optics and his public service

King of Prussia known for military successes, territorial expansion, and patronage of the arts and Enlightenment

King of Portugal known as 'the Builder' who reigned with his niece Queen Dona Maria I

Swedish German chemist, pharmacist, and pharmacologist who independently discovered oxygen

German-Jewish philosopher and theologian who was a central figure in the development of the Haskalah and a leading cultural figure of his era